(1.1) Introduction
 
(1.2) Discovering Galaxies: Ours & Others
(a) Early Aims
(b) Before 1850 : Search & Discovery
(c) 1850 - 1925 : The Great Debates
(d) 1925 - 1950 : Expanding Horizons
(e) 1950 - Present : Modern Developments

(1.3) Preliminaries
(a) Basic Scales
(b) Galaxies are Multicomponent Systems
(c) Colors and Spectra
(d) Useful Units
(e) Magnitude Systems & Surface Brightness
(f)  Mass to Light Ratios
(g) Cosmology 101

   
2 : MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

(2.1) Motivation & Aims
 
(2.2) Caveats with Current Systems
 
(2.3) Brief History of the Hubble Sequence
(a) Revisions by Sandage
(b) Revisions by deVaucouleurs
 

(2.4) Description & Illustration of Types
(a) Overview
(b) Elliptical : E

(i)   Intermediate & High Luminosity
(ii)  Low Luminosity (Dwarf) Ellipticals/Spheroidals

(c) Lenticulars : S0
(d) Spirals : S
(e) Very Late Spirals & Irregulars
(f) Peculiars
 

(2.5) Relative Frequency of Types
 
(2.6) Other Classification Systems/Extensions
(a) DDO Luminosity Classes
(b) Elmegreen & Elmegreen Arm Classes
(c) van den Bergh's "Trifork" Diagram
 

(2.7)  Automated Galaxy Classification
(a) Brute Force Approach

(i)   Galaxy Zoo Project
(ii)  Neural Nets

(b) Automated Approach

(i)   Simple Image Parameters
(ii)  Example Results from SDSS
 

(2.8) Physical Morphology

 

(4.1) Introduction
 
(4.2) Brief History
 
(4.3) The Schechter Function
 
(4.4) Methods of Evaluating Luminosity Functions
(a) Cluster Samples
(b) Field Samples

(i)   Classical Method
(ii)  Maximum Likelihood Method
 

(4.5) Different LFs for Different Hubble Types
 
(4.6) Different LFs for Different Environments
 
(4.7) Physical Origin of the Luminosity Function

 

(5.1) Introduction

(a) Spiral Galaxies are Complex Systems
(b) Review of Basic Components

(5.2) 3-D Shapes

(a) Disks
(b) Bulges
(c) Bars

(5.3) Surface Photometry

(a) Radial Profiles

(i)   Bulge
(ii)  Disk
(iii) Stellar Halos

(b) Vertical Disk Structure

(5.4) Disk Velocity Field

(a) Gas Rotation Curves

(i)   At Large Radius
(ii)  At Small Radius

(b) Stellar Velocities in the Disk

(i)   Rotation
(ii)  Vertical Dispersion

(c) 2-D Velocity Fields: Spider Diagrams

(5.5) Scaling Relations

(a) V_max & the Tully-Fisher Relation

(5.6) Mass Estimates & Dark Matter Halos

(a) Deriving M(<R) from V_c(R)
(b) Results from Optical Rotation Curves
(c) Results from HI mapping
(d) Dark Matter Halo Structure
(e) Disk Halo Conspiracy

(5.7) Spiral and Bar Structure

(a) Spirals

(i)   Spiral Classes
(ii)  Arm Prominence
(iii) Leading or Trailing?
(iv) Pitch Angle
(v)  The Winding Problem

(b) Bars

(5.8) Variation along the Hubble Sequence


 

(6.1) Introduction and Overview
 
(6.2) Circular Rotation: Oort's Constants
 
(6.3) Epicycles
(a) Overview
(b) Vertical z Motions
(c) Radial Motions
(d) Azimuthal Motion
(e) Values Near the Solar Neighborhood

(6.4) Resonances

(a) Rotating Patterns
(b) Corotation Resonance (CR)
(c) Lindblad Resonances (ILR, OLR)
(d) Importance of Resonances

(6.5) Density Waves

(a) Kinematic Density Waves
(b) Lin-Shu (QSSS) Density Wave Theory

(i)  Sketch of Approach
(ii)  Results

(c) Alternative Sources of Global Density Waves

(i)   Tides from Companions
(ii)  Bars and Oval Distortions

(6.6) Disk Instabilities and Amplification

(a) Local Disk Stability : Toomre's Q Parameter
(b) Swing Amplification

(i)   The Swing Amplifier
(ii)  Feedback for the Amplifier

(c) Bar Instability and its Suppression

 

(7.1) Introduction

(a) The Myths
(b) Subdividing the Elliptical Class
(c) Parameters
(d) Deprojection
(e) Observational Concerns

(7.2) Radial Light Profiles: Outside the Core

(a) Fitting Functions

(i) deVaucouleurs (R^1/4) and Sersic (R^1/n) Laws
(ii) Double Power Law (Dehnen) Laws

(b) Resulting Fits

(i)   Variation with Luminosity
(ii)  Variation with Environment
(iii) cD galaxies
(iv)  Ripples and Shells
(v)   Dwarf Ellipticals & Dwarf Spheroidals

(7.3) Nuclear Regions

(a) Fitting Functions

(i)   Isothermal & King Profiles
(ii)  The Core Sersic Profile
(iii) The Two Power Law "Nuker" Profile

(b) Results: Two Types, Cores & Power-Laws
(c) Summary: Three Kinds of Ellipticals

(7.4) Scaling Relations

(a) Early 2-Parameter Correlations

(i)   Color-Magnitude and Similar Correlations
(ii)  Size & Luminosity vs Surface Brightness
(iii) Luminosity vs Velocity Dispersion

(b) The 3-Parameter Fundamental Plane (F-P)

(i)   Log R_e,   < _e >,   Log ₀
(ii)  The D_n - relation
(iii) Kappa Space : _{1   2   3}
(iv) Physical Basis of the F-P
(v)  Use of F-P in Distance Measurement

(7.5) The Shape of Elliptical Galaxies

(a) 3-D Shapes
(b) Isophote Shapes: Boxy & Disky

(7.6) Kinematics of Elliptical Galaxies

(a) Methods of Analysis

(i)   Fourier Quotient
(ii)  Cross Correlation
(iii) Other Methods

(b) Amount of Rotation

(i)   Expectations (pre-1975)
(ii)  Results

(c) Axis of Rotation
(d) Kinematically Decoupled Cores

(7.7) Mass to Light Ratios

(a) Inner Parts
(b) Outer Parts & Halo

(7.8) Two Kinds of Ellipticals : Boxy and Disky
 
(7.9) Formation of Ellipticals

(a) Two scenarios discussed

(i)   Monolithic Dissipative Collapse
(ii)  Hierarchical Mergers

(b) Relevant Issues & Problems

(i)   The Need for Dissipation (loss of energy)
(ii)  Observational Support for Mergers
(iii) Theoretical Support for Mergers
(iv) Problems to Overcome

(c) Merger Induced Dissipational Collapse


 

(8.1) Introduction

(a) Gas/Fluid Physics & Stellar Dynamics
(b) A Path Through the Subject

(8.2) Potential Theory

(a) Preliminaries
(b) Examples of Density-Potential Pairs

(i)   Point Mass (Keplerian)
(ii)  Uniform Spherical Shell
(iii) Homogeneous Sphere
(iv) Logarithmic Potentials (Flat V_rot)
(v)  Spherical Systems
(vi) Axisymmetric Thin Disks
(vii) Axisymmetric Flattened Systems
(viii) Triaxial Ellipsoids
(ix)  Multipole Expansion

(8.3) Orbit Classes
 
(8.4) Numerical N-Body Methods
 
(8.5) The Virial Theorem

(a) Simple Illustrations

(i)   Circular Orbit
(ii)  Time Averaged Keplerian Orbit

(b) The General Case
(c) Mass Determination
(d) Binding Energy
(e) Negative Specific Heat
(f)  Rotational Flattening

(8.6) Describing Collisionless Systems

(a) The Distribution Function (DF) : f(r, v, t)
(b) Collisionless Boltzmann Equation (CBE)
(c) The Jeans Equation(s)
(d) Applications of the Jeans Equations

(i)   Spherical Steady State Systems
(ii)  Rotational Flattening Revisited
(iii) Vertical Disk Structure

(8.7) Steady State : The DF as f(E, |L|, L_z)

(a) Integrals of Motion & Jeans Theorem
(b) Self-Consistency
(c) Spherical Isotropic Systems : DF = f(E)
(d) Deriving f(E) from (r)
(e) From f(E)d³r d³v to N(E)dE

(8.8) Model Building Using DFs

(a) Polytropic Sphere :   Power Law f(E)
(b) Isothermal Sphere :   Exponential f(E)

(i)   Singular Isothermal Sphere (SIS)
(ii)  General Isothermal Sphere

(c) King Models : Truncated Exponential f(E)
(d) Spherical Models with Rotation : DF = f(E, |L|)
(e) Axisymmetric Systems

(i)   Thin Disks with DF = f(E, L_z)
(ii)  Thick Systems with DF = f(E, L_z)
(iii) Thick Systems with DF = f(E, L_z, I₃)

(f)  Triaxial Systems (eg Bars & Some Ellipticals)

(8.9) Violent Relaxation
 
(8.10) Introducing Star-Star Encounters

(a) Encounter and Relaxation Timescales

(i)   Direct collision (or tidal capture)
(ii)  Strong Deflection
(iii) Weak Deflection

(b) Timescales for Real Stellar Systems
(c) The Fokker-Planck Equation

(i)   Solutions to the Fokker-Planck Equation

(d) Results : The Effects of Encounters

(i)   Relaxation
(ii)  Equipartition
(iii) Escape (Ejection and Evaporation)
(iv) Inelastic Encounters

(8.11) Further Topics

 

(9.1) Galaxy ISMs: An Overview
 
(9.2) ISM Components & Observational Signatures

(a) Introduction
(b) Observational Signatures: General Considerations
(c) Warm Ionized Gas

(i)   Hydrogen Recombination Radiation
(ii)  Collisionally Excited Fine Structure Lines

(d) Hot Ionized Gas
(e) Warm & Cold Atomic Gas
(f)  Molecular Gas
(g) Dust
(h) Relativistic Component

(9.3) Theories of the Multi-Phase ISM
 
(9.4) Gas in Disk Galaxies
 
(9.5) Gas in Elliptical Galaxies
 
(9.6) Gas in Galactic Nuclei
 
(9.7) Gas in Galaxy Halos
 
(9.8) Dust: Particles in the ISM

(a) Overview
(b) Quick Estimates of Important Properties

(i)   Hydrogen Column for Significant Dust Opacity
(ii)  Dust Number Density
(iii)  Dust Temperature
(iv)  Dust Emission Efficiency

(c) The Importance of Dust
(d) The Path Ahead

(9.9) Dust: Physical Properties

(a) Dust Composition from ISM Gas Depletion
(b) Dust Creation
(c) Subsequent Growth & Destruction of Grains
(d) Dust Grain Size Distribution
(e) Interaction with Light: Mie Theory
(f)  Dust Temperatures

(i)   Inferred from IR Emission
(ii)  Equilibrium T_d Estimates
(iii)  Thermal Spikes from Single Photons

(9.10) Dust: Emission & Absorption

(a) Line & Band Features
(b) Dust Absorption

(i)   Basic Scenario
(ii)  Standard Extinction Law
(iii)  Some Other Parameters
(iv)  Variations in the Extinction Law
(v)   Correcting for Reddening & Extinction
(vi)  Gas to Dust Ratios
(vii)  X-Ray Absorption
(viii) Polarization

(9.11) Dust Emssion from Galaxies

(a) Absorption of Light

(i)   Inclination Effects
(ii)  Perpendicular Opacity of Disks
(iii)  Hidden Star Formation

(b) Emission: Broad Band SEDs

(i)   Four Contributions to the FIR
(ii)   Other Factors Affecting the IR Output
(iii)  Variation Along the Hubble Sequence
(iv)   Starbursts
(v)   AGN

(c) Emission: Spectral Features


 

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(11.1) Introduction
 
(11.2) Definitions and Abbreviations
 
(11.3) Emission From Star Formation Regions

(a) Relevant Observables
(b) Empirical Relations

(11.4) Measurements of Current SFR

(a) Synthesis Models to Calibrate SFR Relations
(b) Conversion Relations to find SFR

(i)   Near-UV (1500 - 2800) Luminosity
(ii)  H Luminosity
(iii) Equivalent Width : EW(H)
(iv) FIR Luminosity
(v)  Radio Free-Free Luminosity
(vi) Radio Synchrotron Luminosity

(11.5) Factors Affecting the SFR

(a) Preliminaries
(b) Hubble Type

(i)   Integrated SF
(ii)  Disk SF
(iii) Circumnuclear SF

(c) Arm Structure
(d) Bars

(i)   Disk SF
(ii)  Circumnuclear SF

(e) Interactions

(i)   Disk SF
(ii)  Circumnuclear SF
(iii) Physical Effects of Tidal Interaction

(f)  Gas Surface Density

(i)   Disk SF
(ii)  Circumnuclear SF
(iii) Schmidt Law
(iv) Consumption Timescales

(g) Summary of Star Formation in Disks and Nuclei

(11.6) SF Threshold & Toomre's Q Parameter
 
(11.7) Starburst Galaxies

(a) Overview
(b) Samples of SB galaxies
(c) Luminosity Function
(d) Spectral Energy Distributions (SEDs)
(e) Cause of Starbursts
(f)  Compact Super-Star Clusters
(g) Galactic Scale Superwinds

(i)   Sketch of Physical Mechanisms
(ii)  Observational Signatures
(iii) Global Characteristics

(h) Cosmological Implications of Starbursts

(i)   Possible Importance of Superwinds
(ii)  Starbursts at low and high z

(i) Starburst Relics


 

(12.1) Introduction

(a) Importance of Interactions
(b) Different Physical Regimes

(12.2) Catalogs

(a) Interactions
(b) Pairs

(12.3) Analytic Tools

(a) Dynamical Friction

(i)   Derivation of Retarding Force
(ii)  Special Cases
(iii) Applications of Dynamical Friction

(b) Tidally Driven Evaporation

(i)   Tidal (Jacobi/Roche) Limit
(ii)  Satellite Evaporation/Destruction

(c) Adiabatic (Slow) Encounter
(d) Impulse (Fast) Encounter

(12.4) Numerical Simulations : Methods
 
(12.5) Numerical Simulations : Results

(a) Flyby & Tidal Tails
(b) Minor Mergers & Satellite Accretion
(c) Major Mergers

(i)   Global Behaviour
(ii)  Behaviour of Stars
(iii) Behaviour of Gas
(iv) Fueling Starbursts & AGN

(12.6) Merger Relics

(a) Elliptical Galaxy Formation
(b) Counter-Rotating Disks
(c) Polar Ring Galaxies
(d) Shell Galaxies
(e) Tidal Origin of Dwarf Galaxies


 

(13.1) Introduction
 
(13.2) Cluster Surveys and Catalogs

(a) Optical Identification

(i)   Abell : Catalog of Rich Clusters
(ii)  Zwicky : The CGCG
(iii) Automated Digital Catalogs

(b) X-ray Identification
(c) Other (Future) Methods of Identification

(13.3) Cluster Classification
 
(13.4) Important Timescales

(a) Crossing Time
(b) Violent Relaxation Time
(c) 2-Body & Dynamical Friction Times

(13.5) Cluster Shapes & Kinematics

(a) "Smoothed" Properties
(b) Substructures

(13.6) Two Nearby Examples : Virgo & Coma
 
(13.7) The Morphology-Density Relation

(a) Early Work at Low Redshift
(b) Possibly Relevant Physical Processes
(c) HI Deficiency & Stripping
(d) Recent Work at High Redshift
(e) Caveat

(13.8)   Luminosity Functions
 
(13.9)   cD Galaxies
 
(13.10) The Hot Intercluster Medium

(a) Simple Physics
(b) Hydrostatic Atmosphere & "Beta" Models
(c) X-ray Correlations
(d) Abundances (& Temperatures)
(e) Cooling Flows
(f)  Radio Sources & the ICM
(g) ICM Substructures & Cluster Mergers

(13.11) Cluster Masses

 

(14.1) Introduction
 
(14.2) Finding Nuclear Black Holes
 
(14.3) Difficulties
 
(14.4) Case Studies

(a) M87 : Giant Elliptical
(b) M84 : Another Giant Elliptical
(c) NGC 3115 : Edge on S0
(d) M31 : Nearby Luminous Sb
(e) M32 : Nearby Compact dE
(f) NGC 4258 : Sbc Galaxy
(g)  Milky Way Nucleus

(14.5) Influence of Nuclear BHs on Star Distributions

(a) In Situ Growth of Black Holes
(b) Star Scattering and Orbit Modification
(c) Binary Black Holes

(14.6) Black Hole Demographics

(a) A Major New Component of Galaxies
(b) The Ubiquity of Nuclear Black Holes
(c) Ties to the Bulge

(14.7) Black Holes and Galaxy Evolution
 
(14.8) The Galactic Center as Typical Galaxy Nucleus

 

(15.1) Introduction

(a) Operational Definition of AGN
(b) Reasons for Studying AGN

(15.2) Brief Historical Sketch

(a) Early Optical Spectroscopy
(b) Early Radio Observations
(c) Quasar Discovery
(d) The Redshift Controversy

(15.3) The AGN Paradigm
 
(15.4) AGN Taxonomy

(a) Four Basic Criteria
(b) Taxonomic Table
(c) Mixed Classifications
(d) Emission Line Classification

(15.5) AGN Detection and Identification

(a) Radio Surveys
(b) Optical Colors

(i)   Single Color
(ii)  Multi-color

(c) Slitless Spectroscopy

(i)   Markarian Survey
(ii)  Other Slitless Surveys

(d) Emission Lines
(e) Infra-Red
(f)  X-ray & Gamma-ray
(g) Variability & Proper Motion

(15.6) AGN Demographics

(a) Frequency of AGN in the Local Galaxy Population
(b) AGN Preference for Big Bulges
(c) Higher Luminosities

(15.7) AGN Unified Schemes

(a) Two Different Angle-Dependent Phenomena

(i)   Angle Dependent Obscuration
(ii)  Dopler Boosting of a Relativistic Jet

(b) Seyfert 2s / Seyfert 1s

(i)   NLR/ENLR Shapes
(ii)  NLR vs Nuclear Luminosity Comparison
(iii) Q(nuc) from NLR Radiation Paramater
(iv) Periscopic (Polarazation) View of the Nucleus
(v)  Nuclear Absorption: X-ray Spectra
(vi) Nuclear Absorption: Molecular Masers
(vii) Opening Angle
(viii) Do All Seyfert 2s have Seyfert 1 Nuclei?

(c) NLRGs / BLRGs
(d) Radio Loud: PRG-II / LD-QSR / CD-QSR
(e) RG-I / BL-Lacs : straight down the beam
(f)  Intrinsic Differences: Luminosity & Radio Loudness

(15.8) Accretion Power

(a) Eddington Luminosity & Growth Rate
(b) Thin Accretion Disks
(c) Accretion Efficiency: The Inner Radius

(i)   Newtonian Point Mass Potential
(ii)  Schwarzschild (Non-Rotating) Potential
(iii) Rotating Black Holes

(d) Feeding the Disk

(i)  Nuclear ISM
(ii) Tidally Disrupted Stars

(e) Extracting Rotational Energy?
(f)  Inevitability of Black Hole Formation

(15.9) Continuum SEDs
 
(15.10) Emission Line and Ionized Cloud Physics

(a) Simple Density Limits for the NLR and BLR
(b) Properties of Gas at Single n_e and T_e
(c) The Structure of Ionized Clouds
(d) The Radiation Parameter
(e) Calculating Simple Region Properties

(i)   Mass of Ionized Gas
(ii)  Region Size
(iii) Filling Factor for Ionized Gas
(iv)  Cloud Size
(i)   Cloud Numbers

(15.11) The Broad Line Region
 
(15.12) The Narrow Line Region
 
(15.13) Intrinsic Absorption Lines
 
(15.14) AGN Radio Properties : Cores, Jets, Lobes
 
(15.15) AGN Host Galaxies and Environment
 
(15.16) AGN Evolution

 

(16.1) Introduction

(a) The Good News
(b) The Not-So-Good News
(c) Our Path Through the Subject

(16.2) Global Properties

(a) Large Scale Isotropy
(b) The Cosmological Principle
(c) Large Scale Homogeneity
(d) Small Scale Structure
(e) Expansion

(i)   The Hubble Law
(ii)  Everyone Sees the Same Law

(f)  The Big Bang
(g) Cosmic Time
(h) Olber's Paradox

(16.3) More on Expansion

(a) Expanding Coordinate Grids
(b) Scale Factor a(t) & Comoving Coordinates
(c) Hubble Parameter: H(t)
(d) Velocity Distance Relation & Hubble Law
(e) The Hubble Sphere
(f)  The Nature of the Redshift
(g) Measuring Distances and H_o

(i)   Ladder Methods
(ii)  Direct Methods

(16.4) Components & their Densities & Pressures

(a) The Stage and its Contents
(b) Critical Density & Spatial Geometry
(c) Pressure & Equations of State
(d) Density Changes with Scale Factor
(e)  Rates of Expansion in Each Era
(f) The Five Components

(i)   Dark Energy
(ii)  Dark Matter
(iii) Baryons
(iv) Photons
(v)  Neutrinos

(g) Cosmic Cooling

(i)   Photon (& Neutrino) Cooling
(ii)  Matter (& Galaxy) Cooling

(16.5) Cosmic Geometry: Robertson-Walker Metric

(a) Space-Time Geometries

(i)   Example 1: "Flat" Geometry
(ii)  Example 2: Uniform Positive Curvature
(iii) Example 3: Uniform Negative Curvature
(iv) Adding Time

(b) The Robertson-Walker Metric
(c) Simple Properties of the RW-Metric

(i)   Proper Time
(ii)  Proper Distance
(iii) Velocity Distance Law
(iv) Time Dilation & Redshift
(v)  Total Cosmic Volume

(16.6) Cosmic Dynamics: the Friedmann Equation

(a) Gravity's Field Equation

(i)  T _µv :  The Energy-Momentum Tensor
(ii)  G_µv :  The Curvature Tensor
(iii) Two Cosmological Equations
(iv)  A Newtonian Analog

(b) Cosmological Parameters

(i)   Hubble:   H
(ii)  Density:   ,  
(iii) Curvature:   R,  _k
(iv) Deceleration:   q
(v)  Cosmological Constant :  

(c) The Many FRW World Models

(i)   The General Case
(ii)  The Concordance Model
(iii) Velocity History & Energy Diagrams
(iv)  Flat Models: Single Component
(v)  Flat Models: Matter + Vacuum
(vi)  Curved Models: Single Component
(vii) Specific & Named World Models

(16.7) Horizons & Distances

(a) Three Proper Distances

(i)   Two Examples:   z = 6 & 1000

(b) Horizons

(i)   The Hubble Sphere
(ii)  The Particle Horizon
(iii) The Event Horizon

(c) Space-Time Diagrams
(d) Energy within the Horizon

(16.8) Observables vs Redshift: A Toolkit

(a) Luminosity Distance
(b) Angular Diameter Distance
(c) Proper Motion Distance
(d) Surface Brightness
(e) Volumes of Shells
(f)  Summary of Relations
(g) Useful Charts

(16.9) The First Three Minutes
 
(16.10) Recombination & The CMB
 
(16.11) Measuring Cosmological Parameters
 
(16.12) Problems with the Standard Model
 
(16.13) Inflation & its Solutions

 

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